Hispanic athletes like Roberto Clemente, Alex Rodriguez, Lionel Messi, Sammy Sosa and Oscar De La Hoya have become household names. Group Hispanic Musicians and Singers Jan 07, · We are very grateful to you all for your patronage and support over the years. The University of Adelaide Library is proud to have contributed to the early movement of free eBooks and to have witnessed their popularity as they grew to become a regular fixture in study, research, and leisure Site Reliability Engineering: How Google Runs Production Systems [Murphy, Niall Richard, Beyer, Betsy, Jones, Chris, Petoff, Jennifer] on blogger.com *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. Site Reliability Engineering: How Google Runs Production Systems
Don DeLillo - Wikipedia
Summary: Law enforcement agencies use a range of reactive and proactive strategies to respond to and prevent gun crime. While the rate of violent crimes committed with guns has declined substantially over the past 30 years, more research is needed on which approaches are most effective at reducing gun crime.
The national policy discourse on ways to further reduce gun violence focuses on either enhancing existing laws or passing new laws that could prevent richard rodriguez essays crimes committed with guns e.
Debate about new policies rarely includes explicit discussion of what law enforcement is currently doing, under existing laws, to reduce violent richard rodriguez essays committed with guns.
However, the rate at which violent crimes are committed with guns has declined substantially over the past 30 years. For example, the homicide rate, which is dominated by crimes that involve firearms, has dropped by 50 percent sincewith a large portion of that drop occurring from to James, Although it can be hard to empirically prove that law enforcement actions caused the decline, richard rodriguez essays, most commentators conclude that at least some of this drop was caused by the response of law enforcement Uggen and McElrath, In this essay, we review the range of law enforcement activities focused on enforcing laws that govern the criminal misuse of guns e.
We also comment on the existing research evidence. A convenient way to structure our tour of law enforcement activities is to divide our attention between standard or traditional law enforcement activities and proactive strategies.
Standard law enforcement approaches involve monitoring and reacting to law violations when they occur; [2] proactive approaches involve a range of activities that seek to stop crimes before they occur. Both approaches aim to prevent crime in general. We first review standard law enforcement approaches, including enforcement of existing firearm laws and regulations and the response to individual crimes involving guns e. We then review proactive violent crime reduction and prevention interventions, which occasionally focus on violent crimes committed with guns.
The standard model of policing emphasizes random patrols, rapid richard rodriguez essays to calls, richard rodriguez essays, and investigations of reported crimes with the arrest of the perpetrator as the likely outcome. Enforcing firearm possession laws and responding to, investigating, and prosecuting gun crimes fit under this standard model.
In this approach, increasing the number of law enforcement officers is the primary way to increase performance or enforcement Weisburd and Eck, Both local and federal law enforcement have important, but differing, roles within the standard approach in enforcing gun laws and investigating gun crimes see table below, richard rodriguez essays. Some law enforcement responsibilities listed in the table above include regulatory activities for limiting the criminal misuse of guns. On the regulatory side, the FBI oversees the NICS, and the ATF regulates federal firearms licensees FFLs by processing licenses, conducting inspections, and tracking national firearm commerce.
The NICS is a national resource that helps ensure that people legally excluded from purchasing a firearm are detected during a background richard rodriguez essays. In alone, more than 25 million background checks were conducted through the NICS.
Meanwhile, richard rodriguez essays, the ATF is tasked with inspecting theFFLs in the United States. It inspects roughly 8 percent of these FFLs per year, which results in a license revocation or surrender for roughly 1 percent of the FFLs inspected. Richard rodriguez essaysrichard rodriguez essays, 42 percent of inspected FFLs were found to have no violations, 18 percent had a violation reported, 11 percent received a warning letter, and nearly 4 percent participated in a warning conference ATF, a.
Local and state law enforcement agencies also engage in such state-specific regulatory activities as issuing concealed-carry permits or firearm purchase permits; they also may conduct background checks themselves. A related function is the enforcement of criminal gun possession and trafficking laws on illegal firearm transfers, prohibited possessors, and prohibited locations.
This includes ensuring that firearms are sold and handled appropriately and are owned legally. Firearms may be obtained illegally or by prohibited possessors through a variety of mechanisms; however, a firearm can go through several transactions some of them legal before ending up in the hands of a prohibited possessor.
In surveys of offenders who committed crimes with a gun, richard rodriguez essays, friends and family were the most common source of the gun involved. The next most common sources were illicit sources e.
At the federal level, richard rodriguez essays, enforcement can include investigating FFLs suspected of engaging in criminal activity, investigating interstate gun trafficking, richard rodriguez essays supporting local investigations of intrastate trafficking. At the local level, richard rodriguez essays, this might involve enforcing laws associated with firearm storage or arresting prohibited possessors.
This local enforcement of criminal gun possession laws tends to vary dramatically across jurisdictions. In a survey of urban police agencies, 38 percent of police departments reported that their locality requires background checks for all firearm transfers; of those departments, 28 percent reported frequently or regularly investigating illegal firearm transfers, richard rodriguez essays 32 percent never investigated potentially illegal transfers Koper, Woods, and Kubu, One-third of agencies reported receiving information about individuals prohibited from purchasing firearms who nevertheless attempted to buy one potentially a felony.
Of those departments, 45 percent reported regular follow-up on those cases, and 47 percent reported occasional follow-up, richard rodriguez essays. The effects of this enforcement of criminal gun possession and trafficking are unclear, because there is no research that examines how violent crimes committed with guns might be reduced through more-proactive enforcement and prosecution of gun law violations Cook, Pollack, and White, The more-common aspects of the standard police response—specifically, the random patrol and arrest functions—are unlikely to contribute to substantial reductions in crimes committed with guns.
The weakness of the standard policing model for reducing crime was evident in the mids e. While patrol is a necessary function of policing, it is now commonly recognized that patrol strategies should be systematic and data-driven Koper, Federal and local law enforcement agencies respond to violent crimes committed with guns in several ways, richard rodriguez essays. The FBI and the ATF are involved in investigations of gun trafficking, terrorism, and mass violence.
The ATF also supports investigations by tracing the ownership of firearms involved in crimes through richard rodriguez essays National Tracing Center and by maintaining the NIBIN, which helps link guns to offenders or to multiple crimes. Gun tracing is useful for understanding the impact of laws on the source of guns Collins et al. Occasionally, traces lead back to FFL dealers who are engaged in illegal or negligent activity or to straw purchases associated with gun crimes.
The use of both the NIBIN and the National Tracing Center has generally increased over time, but we do not know whether the use richard rodriguez essays these federal resources has significantly improved investigation success rates or led to reductions in violent crimes committed with guns. However, enhanced federal prosecution of violent offenders who commit crimes with guns is potentially effective, as we discuss later.
Importantly, the enforcement and prosecution of gun crimes may affect rates of violent crimes committed with guns. Police departments that arrest those engaging in violent crimes involving a gun might be expected to reduce community gun violence by incapacitating offenders at high risk of reoffending and by deterring future offenders. Similarly, national estimates of nonfatal shootings and nonfatal shooting clearances are lacking, but most indicators suggest that the frequency of nonfatal shootings is much higher than that of fatal shootings, and that clearance of nonfatal shootings is much lower than clearance of homicides performed with guns or other weapons.
Some recent research evidence suggests that a key reason for this gap in homicide clearance compared with nonfatal shooting clearance is the amount of resources dedicated to the initial response to and sustained investigation of homicides Cook et al. Not surprisingly, richard rodriguez essays, in this analysis richard rodriguez essays homicides and nonfatal shootings in one city, increased resources devoted to homicide investigations produced more on-scene and postscene evidence collection, including witnesses interviewed, forensic evidence collected, richard rodriguez essays, and existing records reviewed e.
The collection of more evidence is generally associated with increased clearance. Additional resources, better on-scene evidence collection, and more postscene evidence collection or forensic testing for homicide investigations are also associated with improved outcomes Braga, Turchan, and Barao, With wide variability in clearance rates across localities e.
Much more research is needed in this area. Many of the standard law enforcement approaches are important activities in their own regard and logically affect crime through deterrence and incapacitation. However, the extent to which certain elements of standard policing practices—such as the consistent enforcement of gun laws, improvements in violent crime investigations and clearance rates, or an increase in the role of federal enforcement activities—are related to richard rodriguez essays crimes committed with guns is in need of further research.
During the peak violent crime years of the s, law enforcement agencies started to experiment with more-proactive ways to reduce crime using methods that better focused limited resources. We now consider proactive policing strategies that have been designed to prevent or reduce crime and note where their effects on violent crimes or violent crimes committed with guns have been evaluated empirically, richard rodriguez essays.
Many evaluations of these strategies do not differentiate violent crimes from violent crimes involving a gun. Although guns are very likely to be involved in violent crimes e. Therefore, we know considerably less about how some of the strategies discussed in this section affect violent crime involving a gun as opposed to violent crime in general.
For our discussion of proactive law enforcement approaches, we follow the general framework adopted for a recent consensus panel report by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine on proactive policing. This important report categorizes and describes four approaches to proactive policing:. Each of these proactive approaches has unique implementation considerations and varies with regard to the existing research evidence.
Many proactive approaches overlap and can be placed in more than one of the categories. Therefore, we categorize the proactive approaches discussed in the following sections where they seem to fit best, but ours should not be considered a rigid classification. Place-based approaches are predicated on the fact that crime concentrates in small geographic areas.
Likewise, violent crime is not evenly distributed across communities and their populations. Typically, a large share of violent crime is associated with a small group of locations. Many violent crime prevention strategies in policing take advantage of this clustering by intervening with the subgroup of people responsible for a large share of the violence, with the locations where violent crime is most prevalent i.
Hot spot policing approaches focus on high-risk locations; many of the earliest versions of hot spot policing attempted to reduce violent crimes committed with guns through traditional law enforcement responses. These versions consist largely of stops and arrests in identified hot spots. Strategies include directed patrols, crackdowns on illegal weapon-carrying, and a focus on known offenders in hot spot locations. More-recent evidence suggests that frequency of patrols, rather than duration, richard rodriguez essays, might be more important Mitchell,but the overall evidence suggests that directed patrols can reduce violent crimes and violent crimes committed with guns, depending on the focus of the hot spot intervention Braga, Papachristos, and Hureau, richard rodriguez essays, Like directed patrols, crackdowns emphasize stops, richard rodriguez essays, searches, and arrests in hot spots, but they usually occur on a large scale and typically focus on specific problems in those areas e.
A review of hot spot crackdowns on illegal weapon-carrying found that this approach is generally associated with modest reductions in gun crimes, violent crimes committed with guns, and calls for shots fired Koper and Mayo-Wilson, ; see also Koper, Mayo-Wilson, and Smith, The long-term effects of these types of efforts are not well understood, richard rodriguez essays there is evidence that their effects might be short-lived Koper, Mayo-Wilson, and Smith, ; Rosenfeld and Fornango, ; Sherman, ; more importantly, such efforts often contribute to police-community tensions when enacted too broadly, for too long, or without providing explanation to the community Tyler, Fagan, and Geller, richard rodriguez essays, Indeed, community frustration with stop-and-frisk practices resulted in a federal judge finding the New York City Police Department liable for a pattern and practice of racial profiling and unconstitutional stops in Another common type of place-based intervention focuses on offenders who live or gather in violent crime hot spots.
As part of the Philadelphia Policing Tactics Experiment, richard rodriguez essays, the Philadelphia Police Department used crime analysts to identify repeat violent offenders who were living in or richard rodriguez essays crime in violent crime hot spots. Officers then patrolled these areas and stopped and questioned repeat violent offenders. The nature of these contacts ranged from having informal conversations to serving arrest warrants.
The results of a randomized controlled trial indicated that there was a percent reduction in violent crimes but not specifically in those committed with guns and a percent reduction in violent felonies relative to the control areas, which received random patrols Groff et al.
Other place-based approaches reflect recent technological innovations. Closed-circuit television CCTVacoustic gunshot detection technology, and predictive policing are increasingly used to richard rodriguez essays and predict high crime locations. There is a substantial amount of research examining the effect of CCTV for preventing crime, richard rodriguez essays, and it is indicative of modest reductions in crime in general Welsh and Farrington, The effect of CCTV on violent crimes and violent crimes committed with guns, however, is less clear.
Acoustic gunshot detection technology can be used in conjunction with CCTV to detect and respond to shootings or criminal discharges of a firearm. Acoustic sensors are strategically placed in areas with high levels of shootings or violent crimes committed with guns, richard rodriguez essays, and advanced software is used to distinguish gunshots from other environmental noise. When gunshots are detected, an automatic alert is sent to law enforcement.
The intention is to allow quicker response times to shootings in certain areas, but gunshot detection systems are typically associated with an increase in workload which may be caused by false positives; Ratcliffe et al. There is little evidence that this method improves investigations or reduces violent crimes committed with guns Mares and Blackburn, Predictive policing uses historical crime data to identify locations and times in which particular crimes are most likely to occur.
These predictions are then used to conduct hot spot patrols or inform other strategies. The research on predictive policing is limited, and the evidence that it reduces violent crimes is lacking.
CCTV, acoustic gunshot detection, and predictive policing may lack effectiveness as stand-alone strategies, richard rodriguez essays, and they likely need to be used in conjunction with other strategies to effectively reduce violent crimes Piza et al.
Failing Fast: Day One, Panel Two - Richard Rodriguez
, time: 1:10:53F. Scott Fitzgerald's Essay The Crack-Up, From Esquire
Site Reliability Engineering: How Google Runs Production Systems [Murphy, Niall Richard, Beyer, Betsy, Jones, Chris, Petoff, Jennifer] on blogger.com *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. Site Reliability Engineering: How Google Runs Production Systems We even have an urgent delivery option for short essays, term papers, or research papers needed within 8 to 24 hours. We appreciate that you have chosen our cheap essay service, and will provide you with high-quality and low-cost custom essays, research papers, term papers, speeches, book reports, and other academic assignments for sale Leslie Marmon Silko (born Leslie Marmon; born March 5, ) is an American writer.A Laguna Pueblo Indian woman, she is one of the key figures in the First Wave of what literary critic Kenneth Lincoln has called the Native American Renaissance.. Silko was a debut recipient of the MacArthur Foundation Grant in the Native Writers' Circle of the Americas Lifetime Achievement Award in
No comments:
Post a Comment